TIGblogs - Kahendi's TIGBlog

TIGblogs - Kahendi's TIGBlog http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/ What's on the minds of young leaders from around the globe? en-us How could you do this to me? http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/521875 How could you do this to me?

Updated 13 hr(s) 34 min(s) ago

Deka Hassan Abdi*

The room is chillingly silent. All eyes are fixated on a tiny TV screen. A six-year-old girl is about to undergo the female cut the Somali way. She closes her fear-filled eyes and helplessly tries to pull her legs away from her mother, as the cutter approaches with a razor blade in hand.

All eyes turn away from the screen for a brief moment as the magnitude of the horror that this little girl is about to undergo sinks in.

I rush out as the razor makes its first slash, because I could not stand re-living the terror.

When it was done to me, I was a five-year-old nursery school pupil, part of a group of five little girls.

I can’t remember if it was a school day or a weekend. I just remember my elder sister telling me, "You will be circumcised."

I have died!

She enticed me with two sachets of mabuyu and juice since that is what I loved. I was curious to know what circumcision was about as I had heard other girls brag that they had been circumcised.

I was the third person to go in and when I heard the screams from my cousin who was older than me, I was afraid. She was screaming, "I have died! I have died!"

I wanted to run away but my sister tied my hands to herself. She told me, "You will be a nice girl when you go through this. I have passed through the same. Your older sister has passed through it, your mother…" and she clicked her fingers to mean that it was an eternal chain backwards.

There was only one razor for the five of us. The woman would cut one of us, apply herbs on the wound, then dip the razor in water and proceed to the next. If you did not cry, the women were jubilant. But I cried. My sister tells me that I was screaming, "Have you finished? Have you finished? My heart is coming out!"

Although my wound healed in two weeks, it was only the beginning of the physical pain I am still experiencing. I underwent Type III Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) where the clitoris and both the inner and outer lips (labia minora and majora) are slashed off and the wound sewn almost shut, leaving only a tiny multipurpose opening the size of a matchstick head, for passing urine and the menstrual flow.

It was difficult passing urine as my legs were tied together and I had to lie on my side. Because of the wound, the urine burnt me and I found myself suppressing the urge to urinate.

When my periods began, I underwent unbearable abdominal pain. Since the opening is small, the blood clots trying to pass through make periods extremely painful. They do not come normally. For seven days every month, I do not go to work. Even if I am in a matatu and I feel the first pains, I get out, run to the nearest pharmacy, get painkillers and take them on the spot. Whenever I feel the first pains, I start sweating because I know the next several days I will not be going to work. I think the pain is similar to labour pains. It is the same for most of the girls from North Eastern Province. When we were in high school, the doctor was often unable to handle all the girls writhing and throwing up on the dispensary floor. In most cases, we were taken home.

Every month, I was down for seven days and when my father saw me throw up, he wondered what kind of worms I had that made me sick every month.

The saddest thing is that women and girls undergo this painful mutilation for men, who will never understand the trauma that marks our lives from then henceforth. Even when they know of hard work and pain of the wedding night for both the bride and groom, not many are ready to do something about it or even speak out.

But I don’t blame my parents. I blame ignorance and illiteracy. All the women believe that if you are married, the pain will cease. I saw the woman who cut me up and asked her why she did that to me. She told me to go get married and my problems will be over. It hurts me that she is still doing the same thing even now — stitching girls like a piece of cloth.

Unstitching

I would not consider getting surgically unstitched to save myself from all the pain because I fear the stigma of being opened up. People may not know about it but my husband will. A man would rather take a girl to hospital for unstitching on their wedding night than marry a girl who has been ‘opened’. He fears being stigmatised too.

Marrying a man from a community that does not value FGM is not a solution, because my culture restricts me to marrying a Somali man. So my seven-day horror will continue every month until I am married. Then I will have to grapple with being a wife and mother. I know sex and childbirth will be excruciating, if not life threatening, but I would rather not think about them now. I have enough problems living with FGM, and cannot fathom facing the future with it.

* As told to Brenda Kageni]]> Sun, 09 Nov 2008 01:09:00 EST http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/521875 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Let edible plants enrich your scenery http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/512868 Let edible plants enrich your scenery

Updated 14 hr(s) 10 min(s) ago

Hosea Omole

Edible landscaping is the use of food plants to construct your landscape. It is a good alternative to conventional residential landscapes that are designed solely for ornamental purposes. Fruit trees, shrubs, vegetables, nuts and believe it or not, edible flowers can be incorporated into your garden to provide an alternative source of food in the wake of rising inflation.

If the idea of edible landscaping sounds a little far-fetched, you are not alone. Until recently, such applications were limited to crop fields and orchards. But edible landscaping dates back to ancient Egypt where flowers, grapes, arbours, vines and fruit trees were incorporated into the garden. However, during the renaissance era, things changed. Gardens became more formal and segregated so that fruit trees, orchards and vegetables were planted in separate areas.

Attractive landscapes

Today, edible landscaping is fast regaining popularity as people are striving to do more with their land. Many people also realise that edible landscapes can just be as attractive as purely ornamental gardens. Whether you are starting from scratch or planning to add some edible plants into an existing garden, here are a few tips to take the guess-work out of edible landscaping.

Understand your plants

There are numerous edible plants that you can incorporate in your garden. Perennial herbs can be used as ground covers while smaller fruiting plants can be used as shrubbery. Many trees function in multiple layers — as shades, bloomers and as edibles. These are favourite candidates for your edible landscape.

Take some time to understand the plants you want to use. The mature size of the plant is particularly important. This will help you to know not only where to plant but also how to mix and match with other plants. A number of fruits and vegetables do best where they receive at least six hours of full sunlight a day. Most also thrive in well-drained soils.

Parts of your yard that satisfy these conditions are good places to have edible plants. Nevertheless, find out the optimum growth conditions of each plant; their preferred soils and climatic conditions. Such information can be obtained from your nearest nursery.

Begin with the more permanent trees and large shrubs, then move to the smaller shrubs and eventually fill in with the herbs and ground covers. Avoid the temptation to plant in shamba-like rows.

Where space is limited, consider container planting or go vertical using climbing herbs such as passion fruits. You can also put an arbour or some other structure to support your climbers.

Richer diverse mix

Whenever you can, interplant edibles with ornamentals for a richer and more diverse plant mix. This way you also control pests by somehow confusing them. However, for the more seasonal edibles that are harvested frequently, it may be necessary to plant in a garden solely devoted to their production. This allows you to maintain and harvest them without interfering with the more permanent plantings.

Plant Maintenance

Edible plants, just like ornamental plants, require maintenance. To enhance maintenance requirements, plant the "right plant in the right place". In other words, be sure to match a plant’s growing requirements with your garden’s conditions. When growing vegetables, consider the season as well — some plants grow only at specific times of the year. Overall, all plants require some pruning, fertilising, and watering, as well as monitoring for pest problems. Take special care to select pesticides and fertilisers that are appropriate and safe on plants meant for human consumption.]]> Thu, 30 Oct 2008 03:15:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/512868 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Torture claims against officers surface http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/512669 Torture claims against officers surface

Updated 3 hr(s) 10 min(s) ago

By Mutinda Mwanzia and James Ratemo

The joint military operation in Mandera District has come under sharp scrutiny after allegations of torture surfaced.

And this after the operation was criticised by Muslim leaders in Nairobi who called for the withdrawal of military officers sent to quell the inter-clan fighting.

The National Muslim Leaders Forum (Namlef) said the operation had spread terror in the district, with Namlef chairman Abdullahi Abdi claiming on Wednesday that military personnel were rounding up and terrorising innocent civilians.

At dawn on Tuesday, army and police officers are reported to have invaded Elwak and Wargadad areas, flushing out residents with whips and kicks while demanding weapons.

Tears and agony abound as those rounded up were flogged and forced to walk on their knees over long distances as part of torture to produce illegally held arms.

At Elwak District Hospital, which has a 32-bed capacity, 112 people were admitted with injuries. According to Dr Fred Otsyena, most suffered soft tissue injuries to the back and buttocks inflicted by whipping.

Pupils narrated how teachers were whipped in a bid to force them divulge the location of hidden guns. A woman, six-months pregnant, and two others narrated how officers allegedly raped them in the dawn raid.

Claims denied

But North Eastern PPO Stephen Chelimo denied claims police used force, stressing that the operation would continue until they disarmed all militias.

Chelimo showed journalists 48 firearms, 1,224 rounds of ammunition and 6 grenades, 3 communication sets, one rocket propeller, military uniform and assortment of unidentified drugs allegedly recovered from the operation.

Thousands of residents have fled into the interior fearing further terror from the officers now camped in the area.

Meanwhile, the Kenya Red Cross (KRC) has sounded an alert over a humanitarian crisis in Mandera.

On Wednesday, KRC Secretary-General Abbas Gullet said the district was also facing severe drought, which has left more than 115,000 people dependent on relief aid.

He said the military personnel and attacks by bandits had hampered operations of his team in the district.

"Most aid agencies have suspended operations due to security concerns," noted Gullet.

He urged security teams involved in stemming the clan conflicts to respect personnel from aid agencies, who are impartial and independent.

"We, therefore, call upon the Government to halt the military operation and let religious leaders initiate peace talks," he said.

Some residents claimed the military had injured many during the operation to recover arms.]]> Wed, 29 Oct 2008 18:34:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/512669 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Organic farming 'could feed Africa' http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/511890 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/organic-farming-could-feed-africa-968641.html

Traditional practices increase yield by 128 per cent in east Africa, says UN

By Daniel Howden in Nairobi
Wednesday, 22 October 2008
New evidence suggests that organic practices - derided by some as a Western lifestyle fad - are delivering sharp increases in yields, improvements in the soil and a boost in the income of Africa's small farmers

Organic farming offers Africa the best chance of breaking the cycle of poverty and malnutrition it has been locked in for decades, according to a major study from the United Nations to be presented today.

New evidence suggests that organic practices – derided by some as a Western lifestyle fad – are delivering sharp increases in yields, improvements in the soil and a boost in the income of Africa's small farmers who remain among the poorest people on earth. The head of the UN's Environment Programme, Achim Steiner, said the report "indicates that the potential contribution of organic farming to feeding the world maybe far higher than many had supposed".

The "green revolution" in agriculture in the 1960s – when the production of food caught and surpassed the needs of the global population for the first time – largely bypassed Africa. Whereas each person today has 25 per cent more food on average than they did in 1960, in Africa they have 10 per cent less.

A combination of increasing population, decreasing rainfall and soil fertility and a surge in food prices has left Africa uniquely vulnerable to famine. Climate change is expected to make a bad situation worse by increasing the frequency of droughts and floods.

It has been conventional wisdom among African governments that modern, mechanised agriculture was needed to close the gap but efforts in this direction have had little impact on food poverty and done nothing to create a sustainable approach. Now, the global food crisis has led to renewed calls for a massive modernisation of agriculture on the hungriest continent on the planet, with calls to push ahead with genetically modified crops and large industrial farms to avoid potentially disastrous starvation.

Last month the UK's former chief scientist Sir David King said anti-scientific attitudes among Western NGOs and the UN were responsible for holding back a much-needed green revolution in Africa. "The problem is that the Western world's move toward organic farming – a lifestyle choice for a community with surplus food – and against agricultural technology in general and GM in particular, has been adopted across the whole of Africa, with the exception of South Africa, with devastating consequences," he said.

The research conducted by the UN Environment Programme suggests that organic, small-scale farming can deliver the increased yields which were thought to be the preserve of industrial farming, without the environmental and social damage which that form of agriculture brings with it.

An analysis of 114 projects in 24 African countries found that yields had more than doubled where organic, or near-organic practices had been used. That increase in yield jumped to 128 per cent in east Africa.

"Organic farming can often lead to polarised views," said Mr Steiner, a former economist. "With some viewing it as a saviour and others as a niche product or something of a luxury... this report suggests it could make a serious contribution to tackling poverty and food insecurity."

The study found that organic practices outperformed traditional methods and chemical-intensive conventional farming. It also found strong environmental benefits such as improved soil fertility, better retention of water and resistance to drought. And the research highlighted the role that learning organic practices could have in improving local education. Backers of GM foods insist that a technological fix is needed to feed the world. But this form of agriculture requires cash to buy the patented seeds and herbicides – both at record high prices currently – needed to grow GM crops.

Regional farming experts have long called for "good farming", rather than exclusively GM or organic. Better seeds, crop rotation, irrigation and access to markets all help farmers. Organic certification in countries such as the UK and Australia still presents an insurmountable barrier to most African exporters, the report points out. It calls for greater access to markets so farmers can get the best prices for their products.

Kenyan farmer: 'I wanted to see how UK did it'

Henry Murage had to travel a long way to solve problems trying to farm a smallholding on the western slopes of Mount Kenya. He spent five months in the UK, studying with the experts at Garden Organic a charity in the Midlands. "I wanted to see how it was being done in the UK and was convinced we could do some of the same things here," he says.

On his return 10 years ago, he set up the Mt Kenya Organic Farm, aimed at aiding other small farmers fighting the semi-arid conditions. He believes organic soil management can help retain moisture and protect against crop failure. The true test came during the devastating drought of2000-02, when Mr Murage's vegetable gardens fared better than his neighbours'. At least 300 farmers have visited his gardens and taken up at least one of the practices he espouses. "Organic can feed the people in rural areas," he says. "It's sustainable and what we produce now we can go on producing."

Saving money on fertilisers and pesticides helps farmers afford better seeds, and composting and crop rotation are improving the soil. Traditional maize, beans and livestock farming in the area have been supplemented with new crops from borage seeds to cayenne peppers and honey, with buyers from the US to Europe. Now he is growing camomile for herbal tea, with buyers from the UK and Germany both interested.
]]> Wed, 29 Oct 2008 01:17:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/511890 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Albinism- Growing up different http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/507827
The challenges of growing up different

Published on

By Timothy Aseka

I am the first born in a family of five siblings, and the only child with albinism in my family — in fact, in the whole village. Since my birth in 1987, life has been full of challenges.

As a kindergartener at the village day school, I had to bear with children who stared at me continuously as I walked to school, played at break time and went about my chores. Many would greet me in a fake English accent.

Timothy: Government should protect citizens against discrimination. Photo/Maxwell Agwanda
Whenever I walked in public, huge crowds of children would follow me. Surprisingly, even adults would halt their work and stare until I disappeared around the corner or into the horizon.

My father advised me to make friends with the villagers. Whenever they followed, I stopped and shook hands with them. This served me well because soon they stopped whispering and greeted me by my name. Primary school was a nightmare. Albinism is characterised by short sightedness. I couldn’t see the black board. The teacher, being ignorant of my condition, would beat me up and even kick me out of class for what she termed as rudeness and laziness for ‘refusing’ to do her assignments.

To make matters worse, I did not know that a person could sit in the middle of a classroom and still be able to read the board. I did not know how I could make the teacher understand.

I was six years old and all I could do was persevere, be patient and bear the brunt of other people’s ignorance. This continued until a neighbour told my parents about Kibos School for the Blind in Kisumu. I was transferred there.

Supportive parents

A Kiswahili saying goes "uchungu wa mwana aujuae ni mzazi" (the mother knows the pain of her child).

But neither the teacher nor my parents knew the problems I was facing. To them the only difference between me and other children was the difference in skin colour and my difficulty in seeing in bright sunlight. Period.

This may sound weird, considering my father is a university graduate who had grown up with a cousin with albinism.

My mother, a primary school leaver who had never met an albino before, was less ignorant, much kinder and more understanding.

A child with albinism needs supportive parents. My parents’ ignorance led them to respond slowly to my needs. For instance, it took them a long time to realise that I needed a cap, sunglasses and sunscreen lotion. My father, a macho man, discouraged me from using lotions saying they were for women.

Inferiority complex

I had to disobey him sometimes. For instance I had to refuse work that he allocated me in direct sunlight. At times he would beat me, but I stood my ground. I did not know how to express the difficulties I was facing to him, but I knew the consequences of staying in the sun too long.

I am ever grateful to my mother for ensuring I stayed out of the sun and got caps and long-sleeved clothes.

Other challenges, I must admit, have been self-imposed. I have suffered greatly from an inferiority complex. When I joined college, I was acutely aware the institution had never had an albino student. As I pursue my educational goals and try to make friends, I continue to fear rejection, even though I know I should be bigger than that.

I hold great hopes and big dreams. Despite the challenges that I have faced as an albino, I hope society will appreciate people with albinism as normal human beings. Indeed I dream of a future where descendants with my traits will not be stared at, where ignorance shall not dictate how they shall be treated. Albinos who have beaten all odds, such as, Dr Wanyonyi of Kenyatta University, Mr Mwendwa of Kagumo Teachers’ Training College, Ms Mumbi Ngugi, a lawyer and activist and Hon Al-Shymaa Kway-Geer, a Tanzanian MP, inspire me. ]]> Sat, 25 Oct 2008 18:35:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/507827 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Rest in peace, Mahmoud Darwish http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/452041
A candle goes out,
A legacy left behind
For the younger generation to carry on.
May God bless him,
Rest his soul
In peace.

In Jerusalem
by Mahmoud Darwish
Translated by Fady Joudah

In Jerusalem, and I mean within the ancient walls,
I walk from one epoch to another without a memory
to guide me. The prophets over there are sharing
the history of the holy . . . ascending to heaven
and returning less discouraged and melancholy, because love
and peace are holy and are coming to town.
I was walking down a slope and thinking to myself: How
do the narrators disagree over what light said about a stone?
Is it from a dimly lit stone that wars flare up?
I walk in my sleep. I stare in my sleep. I see
no one behind me. I see no one ahead of me.
All this light is for me. I walk. I become lighter. I fly
then I become another. Transfigured. Words
sprout like grass from Isaiah’s messenger
mouth: “If you don’t believe you won’t believe.”
I walk as if I were another. And my wound a white
biblical rose. And my hands like two doves
on the cross hovering and carrying the earth.
I don’t walk, I fly, I become another,
transfigured. No place and no time. So who am I?
I am no I in ascension’s presence. But I
think to myself: Alone, the prophet Mohammad
spoke classical Arabic. “And then what?”
Then what? A woman soldier shouted:
Is that you again? Didn’t I kill you?
I said: You killed me . . . and I forgot, like you, to die.]]> Sun, 10 Aug 2008 01:24:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/452041 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 On attitudes towards homosexuality in Kenya http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/415493 click here.

http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/05/15/gay.kenya/index.html?iref=newssearch#cnnSTCVideo]]> Mon, 07 Jul 2008 14:43:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/415493 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Volunteer Position- Website Editor http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/384379
================================================================================

Position Summary

The development of the EFATP KENYA website are divided into technical, content and design roles and activities. The Website Editor/Coordinator role is to coordinate these activities and to work closely with the marketing staff to ensure the site meets our overall marketing needs, as well as to maintain consistent editorial, graphic design, and website management policies.
Please note that this is not primarily a technical position.

Duties and Responsibilities
• Ensure the website meets our organizational needs and provides a consistent message;
• Work with the Website Content Lead to prioritize, coordinate and edit the work of many content contributors who work directly on the site pages;
• Ensure that the content of the site reflects the policies of the enterprise, is consistent with local appropriate use policies, and does not contain material that violates copyright laws;
• Oversee the strategy to drive traffic to the site;
• Oversee the monitoring and analysis of website usage statistics; and
• Recommend and implement changes to improve usability and effectiveness.

KSAs (Knowledge, Skills and Abilities) Needed
• Strong organization and team management skills;
• Understand what Website does and how to use to drive a consistent marketing message;
• Creative (i.e. able to come up with interesting solutions to the site’s needs);
• Ability to develop and communicate a vision;
• Meticulous about details;
• Strong interpersonal and communication skills;
• Self-directed; and
• Possess a working knowledge of HTML and CSS. Familiarity with PHP, MySQL, and Joomla (or a similar CMS system) is a bonus;

Please be able to commit a minimum average of 10 hours a month.

This is a "virtual" team opportunity which you may perform from your home or other location.
Education for all Trust Programmes (EFATP KENYA’s) operations are nearly entirely driven by the efforts of volunteers. We’re a Small organization and so lines of responsibility become a little blurred at time, but this provides a terrific opportunity to take on a variety of responsibilities and to expand your skills.

If you are interested, please send your resume and cover note to Volunteers@educationforallke.org

Hours: Part-Time
Internship
Seasonal employment
Nonprofit organization
Listed at Kenya.]]> Fri, 06 Jun 2008 23:32:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/384379 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Alchemy? http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/362903 The Alchemist is a rather simple story. I think its genius lies in its simplicity. The story can be followed by child and adult alike, each one connecting with some aspect of the story and deriving some magical truth out of it.

The stories-within-the-story that captured my imagination the most included the one at the very beginning, ie the tale of Narcissus and the Lake. It’s such a funny statement on human nature. The idea that when each of us shows an interest in our fellow human, it is often a selfish interest is true, and sad in a funny way. Is it possible for a Narcissus to recognize the lake for its beauty, and for its generosity in sustaining various life forms or is he bound to only see his reflection when he peers at the lake’s surface? What of the lake? Does it not notice the vain, insecure man before it? How can the lake’s sole interest be the admiration of its reflection in Narcissus’s eyes? I hope I’m not as cynical as the one who coined and related that tale; I’m one of those who would like to believe that we all have a lot more to offer to the world than mere self-absorption.

I was enchanted by the shepherd, Santiago’s conversation with the wind and with the sun, maybe because it reminded me of the stories my grandparents used to tell me. These were stories in which humans and animals communed with nature and with the elements and learned lessons from them. It takes quite an imagination to dream up a conversation between a shepherd and the wind about love, and a parallel conversation between the shepherd and the sun. Who would have thought that the sun’s love for the earth was what kept the two attracted to each other, but also prevented them from coming any closer to each other?

The greatest lesson taught by this story is, I think, the transformative power of love. True love transforms people and those around them, making them better human beings. Alchemy places an emphasis on the process of transformation rather than on the end product of that transformation. It basically tells us that to get to our destination, we have to make a journey. It is that journey that is important, the destination is more like a secondary consideration.

I’m pondering on the wisdoms in this book and trying to connect them with life experience, or even with something like involvement in social activism or in the TakingITGlobal community. In our interaction with each other in this community, we learn different things about each other and the knowledge we gain transforms us and makes us want to be better world citizens. Perhaps our interactions here can be likened to alchemy?

This essay is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License. Please feel free to use my writing for non-commercial purposes and do credit my name (Kahendi) as the writer.]]> Mon, 28 Apr 2008 02:45:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/362903 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Politics and Language in Africa's Postcolonial Experience http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/359257 The Power of Babel: Language and Governance in the African Experience, and in several other publications have provoked me to think deeply about the legacy of language policy in Africa. The thoughts that I outline below come from my engagement with the ideas set forth by these and other scholars.

The development of language and politics in postcolonial Africa has taken divergent paths in different African states. In some cases specific language groups have expanded, while others have shrunk or even vanished. This could be attributed to improved communication in the geographical and linguistic senses, colonial and post-colonial language policies, the work of language promoters (including missionaries, ministers of education and broadcasting and, to some extent, teachers and linguists).

In sub-Saharan Africa , official state languages (in which all official business, including the running of the government and national education, is carried out) have tended to be of European origin. To be more specific, these languages have often been the languages of the colonial powers that once administered these African states. In these cases, while the official language is English, Portuguese, French, German or Spanish, the fact of the matter is that only a tiny elite section of the populations of these countries can use these languages.

Sometimes, the official language of an African country is also its language of national unity. An example is Uganda where the official language of government business in English, and the national language, which is supposed to unite all different linguistic and ethnic groups is also English. In a nation such as Kenya , English is the official language, and Kiswahili, the national language, is spoken by a larger proportion of the population
.
The immediate consequences of having languages of European origin in modern African states are many. For one, foreign policy formulation is usually in the hands of a Western language-speaking elite, which accords disproportionate importance to these languages. Secondly, as the Western languages are keys to major sources of information relevant to foreign policy, policymakers fluent in, say, Portuguese, are more likely to learn about the Lusophone world, and therefore, to promote commercial and political interactions with these regions, as opposed to Francophone or Anglophone regions. Furthermore, these languages are important in orienting the formation of the future elite, so that Kenyans and Nigerians, regardless of their religions, would be more likely to seek admission into British and American universities than into French and Portuguese universities.

On a more local level, the use of European languages in these sub-Saharan states has had the effect of restricting political participation to those who have good command of these languages. In several of these states, the parliamentary language of debate, the language in which the national constitution is written, and the language in which legal procedures are carried out is the ex-colonial language.

It so happens that men within these states are more likely to speak these languages than are their female counterparts. This is attributable to the greater number of educational opportunities available to males. This implies that any attempts to increase female participation in politics would require either a review of the language policy (where politics and parliament are concerned), or a longer-term campaign to make it easier for women to learn the ex-colonial European languages. Looking at the wider picture it becomes clear that not only women, but also the larger populations of these states have been alienated from the law and from political participation by the use of Western languages in judicial and legislative processes. This has deepened the remoteness of the constitution from the citizenry, and may have contributed to the perceived irrelevance of the constitution in most African states, thus slowing down the development of a constitutional culture in most African countries. In addition, it has denied the majority their democratic rights in their democratic right of participation in the formulation of laws.

In Tanzania , the Swahilinization of the legislative process has resulted in greater democratization. There is wider citizen participation in Parliament and it is easier to mobilize more people into the country’s law-making processes, which has, in turn, helped enrich Kiswahili’s legal and constitutional vocabulary.

Of course, there are exceptional cases: within sub-Saharan Africa there are states where the ex-colonial European languages are not the sole languages of national import, or where they simply do not factor into official government business. In Kenya , the use of both Kiswahili and English for parliamentary debate increases the chances for political participation of a wider segment of the population. Interestingly, it was a dictatorial intervention by President Jomo Kenyatta’s in 1974 that introduced Kiswahili into the national assembly. However, the legislation continues to come before parliament in English, thus resuscitating the original problem of linguistic exclusion.

In Somalia , at the time of independence in 1960, Arabic, English and Italian were all adopted as official languages. It was only in 1972 that a military decree of President Mohamed Siad Barre replaced these foreign languages with the official language of Somali (which was more fitting as it was spoken by practically all Somali nationals).

In Tanzania , the unchallenged rule and authority of Julius Nyerere and his CCM (Revolutionary Party) ensured the success of Tanzania’s Swahilinization policy. Across the border, in Uganda, it took a military dictator, Idi Amin Dada, to declare Kiswahili a national language in 1972. These instances all imply that the survival of language policies in favor of African languages could be linked to the survival of autocratic regimes. In other words, the most successful experiments in language planning in Africa might not have been possible without semi-autocratic governments. That is troubling.

It could be argued that there is a link between the use of European languages in African states and continuing white domination over blacks. However, at the same time, one cannot ignore the very real unifying effect of the use of European languages in modern African states, where national identities only appear to transcend ethnic ones. In these states, communalist languages such as Hausa, Luo, Kikuyu and Luganda are directly associated with tribal identity. Thus, in Uganda , any suggestions to use Luganda as a national language would imply the cultural hegemony of an already powerful ethnic group within the state. Other communities would resent such apparent privileging of the culture, traditions and values of the Baganda over their own, and this could very easily lead to the fracturing of the state. In Nigeria , there was similar resentment towards the adoption of Hausa as the national language. These two cases demonstrate that English has a quality that makes it especially suited for use as a language of national unity in some contexts: its ecumenical nature. As an ecumenical language, English is extra-communalist and transcends boundaries of ethnic and racial classification within both Uganda and Nigeria.

In Ethiopia, where Amharic is the national and official language, and in Eritrea, where Tigirinya has the same roles, there is a long history of a consolidated empire, the existence of a national identity, an orthography for the language in question, and a widespread Christian religious identity. All these existed long before the creation of the modern state in Africa , and they have ensured the carrying over of these languages into the running of these respective states.

Further north, in Arabophone Africa, are the Maghrebian countries, and Libya and Egypt . In the Maghreb , the post-colonial governments have adopted language policies aimed at gradually phasing out French and replacing it with Arabic. French colonial policy, especially in Algeria , was especially damaging towards the concept of an Algerian Muslim identity: the French adopted a divide and rule policy by which they tried to reinforce the differences between Berberophone and Arabophone populations. Thus, the postcolonial Algerian government has been especially intolerant of cultural identities other than the Arab Muslim one that they adopted for their nation.

These nations are somewhat reliant on the use of French in their educational and political systems, and because this dependence could not be eliminated upon independence, the drastic Arabization programs adopted in Algeria have sometimes done more harm than good. In Morocco and Tunisia , where the Arabization programs have been less extreme, the importance of French is recognized. In both states, Arabic is the national language, and French is the language of business.

In Egypt , the supremacy of Arabic has been challenged far less strongly. Egypt has actually provided the Arabic language teachers for the Maghrebian Arabization programs. This is partly due to British colonization and the longer and more intense pre-colonial Arabization of the Egyptian population in comparison to the Maghrebian ones. In addition, Egypt, where the al-Azhar University is located, is an important religious center in the Muslim world.

This essay is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License. Please feel free to use my writing for non-commercial purposes and do credit my name (Kahendi) as the writer.]]> Fri, 18 Apr 2008 22:01:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/359257 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Young Adolescents' Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/355985 Click here
]]> Thu, 10 Apr 2008 15:07:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/355985 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Religion- 2 faces http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/355961 click here

I guess I'm not surprised at the content of the website, given that similar events have taken place in the USA, Australia, and elsewhere and have been swept under the carpet by many. Many of us are quick to point to other religions as a threat to global well being. But what about our churches? Is Christianity innocent?

I'm not suggesting a one-dimensional view of the church. I think religion brings alot of positives to the table. But it has also enabled alot of injustice worldwide. What do we do with this knowledge? How do we benefit from the good that religion has to offer while simultaneously limiting the damage that it causes?]]> Thu, 10 Apr 2008 14:50:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/355961 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 World Breastfeeding Week http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/355769
Having grown up in a culture where it is the most natural thing for a mother to breastfeed her child, it gives me pause that somebody somewhere actually felt it necessary to come up with the concept of a week to honor and support mothers who choose to breastfeed their children.

Actually, that's not an honest statement. I do understand that breastfeeding is not always an option for mothers, sometimes by their own choice, sometimes because society/ circumstances force them to make that choice. And I do understand that at some point in history, mothers who breastfed were stigmatized (and, in some quarters, apparently still are) for making a 'primitive' choice. So I do see the necessity for positive information campaigns.

But I still feel strange about all of this. What exactly did it take to get us to this point? I'm going to spend some time thinking about that. And perhaps some day later I will post some more on breastfeeding, the pros and cons. You see, I have realized that the subject of breastfeeding is not a very simple one.

For now, I encourage you to click on the following link to learn more about World Breastfeeding week, which is still a few months away: World Breastfeeding Week]]> Thu, 10 Apr 2008 03:54:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/355769 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 A Language that defies classification http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/353927 Michif]]> Fri, 04 Apr 2008 21:29:00 EDT http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/353927 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Autism and Immunization- the Debate http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/341883
Autism: Why The Debate Rages ]]> Fri, 07 Mar 2008 03:56:00 EST http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/341883 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 Discuss post-election violence in Kenya http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/341881
http://en.discuss.takingitglobal.org/thread/29007/?start=0]]> Fri, 07 Mar 2008 03:38:00 EST http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/341881 42.4927778 -92.342777842.4927778-92.3427778 The History of the Mongol Conquests- a Review http://bumbuwazed.tigblog.org/post/329827
Among the first pages of the book, genealogical tables of the Mongol ruling family are presented. The usefulness of these tables is fully appreciated once one has gone beyond the first two chapters of the book. Without the trees, it is near impossible to keep the different branches of the family straight. Thus, they are effective in making sense of the different rivalries and alliances formed between the individuals.

The book is divided into ten chapters and two appendices. Its first chapter is an introduction to the world of the Eurasian nomads. Set in the Eurasian steppes, the chapter describes the physical geography of the region and focuses on the people who have adapted their lifestyles to its harsh environmental conditions. Among these nomadic peoples are the Mongols. The map provided at the beginning of the chapter is a useful tool, showing the physical geography described in the chapter, and pinpointing the approximate locations of each of the communities discussed.

The second chapter delves into a description of the Turkish Empire in Asia as setting the stage for the rise of the Mongols. Saunders compares the two nomadic groups, highlighting the similarities that led to their rise, and contrasting their achievements. A convenient map of the Turkish Empire complements the chapter.

The next chapter opens with a map of Central Asia, showing the locations of the Mongols and their neighbors. This provides a hint of the contents of the chapter: The breakup of the Turkish Empire and the resulting rise of the Uighurs, Tanguts, Ch’I-tan, Chin and Sung. It is noteworthy that no single major centralized state is established.

Saunders’ fourth chapter is a charming mix of fact and legend. It takes us into the life of Chingis Khan and details the rise of the Mongol leader to military celebrity and administrative genius. Under him, an empire is born: the Merit, Naiman, Kara-Khitay, Chin and Khwarizmian territories fall under his control. Any resistance to the Mongol expansion is rewarded with large-scale slaughter. Unprecedented mingling of cultures in Asia is a feature of the era. A hint of the diversity expressed in the regions under Mongol control is illustrated in a map showing the religious distribution of the area.

Chingis’ death in the fifth chapter is a significant event. He is replaced after a while by his son Ögedei, whose reign pushes the empire into Chin territory, the remnants of Khwarizm and through Poland into Hungary. A traumatized Europe is relieved when a raid is stopped short by Ögedei’s death. A particularly useful map shows the routes used by the different hordes of Mongols in their invasions.

Chapter six describes the alarm among Christian authorities resulting from this invasion of Europe. Christian diplomatic missions sent to the Mongol Khan are rebuffed, but the diplomats come away with a better idea of Mongol strength and methods. Further raids of Muslim Asia are stopped by the death of the Khan Möngke. The Battle of Ayn Jalut is fought and lost by the Mongols. This marks the end of their expansion and the beginning of division of the empire as highlighted in the accompanying map.

One of the major problems faced by the Mongol rulers, that of no prior experience ruling over sedentary societies, is highlighted in the seventh chapter. The differences in religion between the rulers and the ruled further compound this situation. Kubilai Khan manages to conquer entire Chinese realm and to invade much of South Eastern Asia. The monarchy of Il-Khans in Persia is strengthened as the number of Mongol converts to Islam increases. After Kubilai’s death, its break in links with the Mongol base in China and establishment as an independent entity is only natural.

Chapter eight characterizes unrest among Chinese and Persian masses as leading to the fall of the already shaky Mongol Empire. Saunders takes time to reflect on China’s achievements under the Mongols: her people took to the sea, had interactions with Islam and Christianity and established trade links with Persia. This is only part of the story, though. As shown in the next chapter the Khanate of the Golden Horde of Mongols takes shape in Russia. The Khan, Timur, inflicts irreparable damage on Kipchak, and the khanate fragments. Another Timur rises in Chagatai, accumulating power through genocidal campaigns.

The tenth chapter closes this venture into Eurasian history with an assessment of the results of Mongol rule. For one, the strength and distribution of the major religions is changed. A second feature is the transformation in the ethnic character of the different regions. Thirdly, Asia is opened up to European penetration by land and sea.

Following this chapter are two appendices, the first of which discusses the “Secret History of the Mongols”, the primary source for Saunders’ book, whose author is to-date unknown. Appendix two examines the possibility that the Mongols may have been responsible for introducing gunpowder and firearms from China into Europe.

Saunders writes well, combining information from different sources smoothly. However, the large number of details can be confusing, especially when a single event is told from several different perspectives.

Using his primary source to provide the official history, Saunders supplements his work with chronicles and histories recorded in different segments of the empire. These describe the invasions and their immediate results. Additionally, modern day historical analyses are used. These detail the economic and political developments derived from the Mongol Empire.

His documentation is detailed, including endnotes, and a bibliography for each chapter. By highlighting the positive developments arising from the Mongol invasions, achieves his thesis. His method is sufficiently persuasive. Ironically, despite all the evidence he gives to the contrary, Saunders describes the Mongols as a barbaric and cultureless people several times.

Not only would the book serve as an ideal introduction to the subject area, but its excellent documentation would also be helpful in sourcing material for further research in the area. Saunders’ politically statements do not detract significantly from the balanced image of the Mongols that he strives to depict.